Affirmative Action And The Civil Rights Movement - 1568 Words

Affirmative Action has had a very tumultuous 54-year history. Affirmative action was a strategy that forged the Civil Rights Movement in response to the prejudiced approach toward African American citizens in the United States. The policy advocates that black citizens in particular conditions to avoid the unfairness they would usually receive. To try and explain why the methods and laws needed to be adjusted to be equal for everyone. It is essential to realize that 20 Africans came to America in 1619, records are not clear if they were slaves or indentured servants. It was until 1640 when the first African in Jamestown Virginia was declared a slave. The Court ordered that the slave had to serve his master for the rest of his life. The slaves made to work long hours and numerous slaves’ endured inhuman treatment and underwent severe injuries. American citizens in the South challenged a lengthy campaign to seek to continue to be permitted to own slaves but through Lincoln and a bolitionist slave-owning was ultimately banished. Despite condemning slavery and installing multiple laws in society to assure African Americans be treated comparatively equal residents, this was not the situation in most regions in America particularly the South. Each attempt by the government to secure the level treatment of the African American was met with difficulties. Companies in society rejected the idea to hire African Americans over a white American even if both had comparable abilities.Show MoreRelatedAffirmative Action And The Civil Rights Movement Essay1512 Words   |  7 PagesAffirmative action is a strategy formed during the Civil Rights Movement in response to the prejudiced approach toward African American citizens in the American community. The policy advocates these citizens in particular conditions to avoid the unfairness they would usually receive. To explain why the system needed to be adjusted to be equal for everyone. It is essential to realize that African Americans came to America as laborers (slaves) made to work long hours and numerous slaves endured inhumanRead MoreAffirmative Action And The Civil Rights Movement963 Words   |  4 Pagescalled â€Å"Affirmative Action† was introduced with the hope to engage more people of color into the society. Affirmative Action is an outcome of the 1960’s Civil Rights Movement. Its purpose is to provide equal opportunities for members of minority groups and women in education and employment. It is not until 1961 did the term â€Å"affirmative action† was first used by President John F. Kennedy. He made it very clear in an Executive Order that directed government have to take â€Å"affirmative action to ensureRead MoreAffirmative Action : The Feminist And Civil Rights Movement1813 Words   |  8 PagesAffirmative Action should remain in place with no changes because America still needs to proactively provide women and minorities with educational and employment opportunities. History shows affirmative action has advanced both the feminist and civil rights movements. However, an examination of current statistics shows there is still much work to be done to establish equality. Affirmative action is a necessary discrimination in today’s society because qualified individuals are given an opportunityRead MoreAffirmative Action During The Civil Rights Movement1237 Words   |  5 PagesDuring the civil rights movement, minorities were being oppressed and discriminated against. Minorities were losing out on opportunities and jobs. They felt like everything was just so unfair to them. This mistreatment happened until the government implemented affirmative action. Affirmative action allowed minorities more opportunities into schools and allowed more opportunities for jobs. It also allowed society to become more diverse with ethnicities and cultures. Affirmative action diluted theRead MoreAffirmative Action : A System Created During The Civil Rights Movement Essay1940 Words   |  8 PagesAffirmative action was a system created during the civil rights movement to protect African Americans from racial discrimination. There are people in favor of affirmative action and feel like it’s necessary to have it in place to protect blacks against discrimination. Others believe that affirmative action harms blacks more than is benefits them. In fact they might say that affirmative action does not benefit them at all anymore. Both sides use the issue of diversity and blacks having negative consequencesRead More Affirmative Action Essay1599 Words   |  7 Pagesnbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Affirmative action is an attempt by the United States to amend a long history of racial and sexual discrimination. But these days it seems to incite, not ease, the nations internal divisions. Opponents of affirmative action say that the battle for equal rights is over, and that requiring quotas that favor one group over another is un-American. The people that defend it say that the playing field is not level, and that providing advantages for minorities and women isRead MoreKey Concepts That Have Impacted The Results Of The Civil Rights Movement1593 Words à ‚  |  7 PagesThere are three key concepts that have impacted the results of the Civil Rights Movement. The Enumerated, Implied, and Reserved powers were created to help keep the two separate governments in balance. The Enumerated powers gave the government the right to coin money, declare war, etc. The Implied powers gave the government the right to create laws that they feel are necessary to carry out the laws that already exist. The Reserved powers were specifically assigned to the state government, and theirRead MoreBlack Lives Matter Is An International Activist Movement Essay1624 Words   |  7 Pageslives matter is an international activist movement that is highly supported by the African American community and was created in reaction to violence and racism towards African Americans. This movement began in 2013 when Trayvon Martin, an African American teenager was shot and killed by George Zimmerman who was a white police officer. Although the Black Lives Matter movement ha s many supporters, 78% of voting Americans favor All Lives Matter, a movement that criticizes Black Lives Matter, becauseRead MoreThe Turbulent Sixties - An essay about the turbulent 1960s decade and black civil rights.863 Words   |  3 PagesThe 1960s was a wild decade all around the world. It was a time of change, the baby boom generation was reaching adulthood, the culture of the time promoted sex, drugs and rock and roll, and civil rights issues were tearing the United States of America apart. Three major civil rights issues nearly tore the nation apart in the 1960s. Desegregation of the public school system had the end result of integrating black and white children into the same school. New Black Nationalism began to demand economicRead MoreAffirmative Action : Is It Still Needed1544 Words   |  7 PagesIn the United States justice is defined as equal treatment of all its citizens under the law. When one citizen is mistreated an injustice has been committed against all peop le. Affirmative Action is a program whose purpose is to make sure that citizens are treated equally by enforcing a set of policies which are designed to promote the inclusion of all individuals regardless of race, disability, sex, or religion. In the United States democracy we are all equal, but some groups have been enjoying

Sports And Sports Of The Roman Empire - 1362 Words

There is no question the Colosseum was a hotspot for Roman entertainment. The Roman citizens considered the games to be thrilling and anticipated them highly. The book The Colosseum states, â€Å"Sports played an essential part in the Roman Empire. With their ability to assimilate, the Romans transformed the ritual nature of Greek sports into a spectator entertainment†. The Romans, by turning Greek sports into spectator sports, influenced these sports by including their ideal values and virtues. The athletes and sports of the Roman Colosseum were culturally symbolic and reflected idealistic virtues in ancient Rome, including bravery, strength and endurance, and social class. The gladiator sports in Ancient Rome’s Coliseum showcased Roman society’s commitment to the value of bravery. The book The Colosseum states, â€Å"†¦ and because the audiences liked bravery, they also taught them how to die fearlessly.† The athletes all needed courage to participate in the games. Chariot racing, for example, was entertaining to the crowd because it was a dangerous, risky sport played by the athletes (personal.psu.edu). The chariots were designed to be â€Å"as light as possible† (personal.psu.edu); because of this, the dangers of chariot racing increased, as drivers were thrown onto the floor of the arena, stepped on by the horses, or trapped underneath overthrown chariots. Some were even dragged to their deaths (personal.psu.edu) .The athletes needed courage to even step foot into the arena knowingShow MoreRelatedWho Had More Influence On Shaping The Athletics / Sports853 Words   |  4 Pagesathletics / sports past and present in the western world: the ANCIENT GREEKS or the ROMAN EMPIRE? Explain your choice in detail. In the Western World, the people who had more of an influence on the shaping of athletics and sports in the past and the present happened to be the Roman Empire. Although most to all of the sporting activities and views on athletics did originate from the Ancient Greeks, the Roman Empire had a monumental impact on not only the advancement of sport andRead MoreThe Roman Spectacle Of Ancient Society891 Words   |  4 PagesThe Roman Spectacle Today one can be a spectator in every sport via sports networks, and billion dollar stadiums, and arenas. While modern day sports vary drastically and so do their playing fields, in the Roman Empire one sport reigned supreme the sport of Chariot racing. Few forms of entertainment enjoyed as great of a level of devotion and longevity than that of Chariot racing. The sport of chariot racing was an integral part of Roman society and wherever the Romans went, chariot racingRead More Sports them and Now: Roman times Essay939 Words   |  4 Pages SPORTS THEN AND NOW ROMAN GAMES AND MODERN TIMES nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Throughout history, sports have evolved into todays organized professional elite sports. Through certain periods in history sports were very different then they are today and meant very different things to the cultures in society of those times. During Roman periods people did not take part in organized team sports as they do today. In modern times most of the popular sports of the day have professional counterpartsRead MoreThe Wrestling Of Amateur Wrestling1178 Words   |  5 Pagescountry. Amateur wrestling was one of the original sports played at the Ancient Olympic Games. At the 708 B.C games, wrestling was the final event in the traditional Pentathlon. It was the deciding discipline to decide who won the Pentathlon. As the Roman Empire was in the rise, and the violence games they played were in the rise, the Greeks were concerned that their sport would be eradicated, so they designed the rules of what is now called Greko-Roman Wrestling. Wrestling in Ancient Rome was partRead MoreHistory of Physical Education Essay1326 Words   |  6 Pages Physical education is defined nowadays as a â€Å"systematic instruction in sports, exercises, and hygiene given as part of a school or college program† (Park). When most people think of the term â€Å"physical education† they think of it as â€Å"a broad, inclusive term comprising the fields of physical education, health education, safety education, athletics, recreation, dance education, kinesiology and so on† (Zeigler 1). It may sometimes be referred to as physical training or gym class and mainly isRead MoreHow The Ancient Greeks And Romans Still Influence Our Modern World869 Words   |  4 PagesIt is important for students to understand how the ancient Greeks and Romans still influence our modern world. Ancient Greece was the birthplace modern mathematics, science, philosophy, architecture, literature, theater, art, architecture, Democracy, Law, and competitive sports. The term mathematics was invented by Pythagoras. It means that which is learned. In turn, mathematical theories were applied to building the great architecture of Greece. The great Greek temples are visual representationsRead MoreThe Geography Of The Greece And Roman Empires967 Words   |  4 PagesThe geography of the Greece and Roman Empires seem really similar, both on the coast lines of the Mediterranean Sea. But they are really different in terms of land and what crops they can grow. The Greece Empire while on the Mediterranean Sea had a vast problem with the weather conditions that the sea brought, many earthquakes, hurricanes and volcanoes. They also faced deep valleys and large mountain terrain. This land was not easy to farm wheat but it was a great place to grow olives and grapesRead MoreMain Functions of the Games in Ancient Rome Essay1337 Words   |  6 Pageskinds of games that took place in ancient Rome were those of ludi scaenici (theatre and plays) and those of ludi circenses (sports). This evaluation of Roman games will concentrate on the sports side of Roman entertainment due to their much higher popularity i.e. chariot racing and the gladiators. Chariot racing is one of the oldest spectator sports in Rome dating back to at least 6BC. The races started to celebrate religious festivals, the very first recorded one was theRead MoreThe Roman Colosseum Of Rome1153 Words   |  5 Pagesthe granddaddy of them all, the Roman Colosseum. This is potentially the most famous monument to survive the classical period. Today, the Colosseum is one of Rome’s most popular tourist attractions, attracting millions of visitors every year. This massive amphitheater is located in the center of Rome, Italy. During ancient roman times these massive amphitheaters were commonly placed around cities. â€Å"Eventually there were well over 250 amphitheaters in the Roman empire† (Hopkins). However, no other amphitheaterRead MoreEtruscan Culture, Architecture, Art, And Religion936 Words   |  4 Pageshad on early Roman history. Site a minimum of four examples. The Etruscans and Greeks influenced the Romans in many ways. Some examples of these influences can be seen in entertainment, religion, architecture and politics. The Romans had the gladiatorial sports for entertainment while the Etruscans also had a sport of gladiatorial fighting. The religion of Romans was a polytheistic one, which means they believed in many Gods like the Greeks did, the only difference is that the Romans changed the Gods

Twelfth Night Explores the Nature of Love Free Essays

The play Twelfth Night explores many different types of love between it’s characters. With so much love and so many different levels and kinds, love easily appears to be the central theme of the play from the complex love triangle between Viola, Oliva and Orsino to hinted at homosexual love from Antonio to Sebastion, it is easily the central theme. The first love in the play is Orsino’s love for Olivia. We will write a custom essay sample on Twelfth Night Explores the Nature of Love or any similar topic only for you Order Now Although Orsino has never met Oliva before in his life he claims to be madly in love with her and sends messenger after messenger to tell her of his love. This uneducated and mostly appearance related love could easily just be infatuation. This could be proven when Orsino quickly asks Viola to marry him as though he never loved Oliva to begin with. Another, but a lot different, example of love in Twelfth Night is the self love Malvolio has for himself. Malvolio only cares about his social rank, becoming a gentleman. Then when he receives the letter from â€Å"Olivia† he becomes ecstatic and even says that he will make him the real head of the house rather then just a steward if they marry. The plans to use Olivia’s love for him as a tool to reach where he wants to be. Another example of love, and probably the most true, is Viola’s love for Orsino. Viola’s love for Orsino is the most true because Viola and Orsino really know eachother. They talk and spend time together, even if they are both â€Å"men† they manage to get to know eachother. Also their live seems true because even though she loves Orsino she would go try and â€Å"Woo† Oliva so Orsino could be happy. There is also little ways showing love in the play Twelfth Night. For instance the idea that Antonio loves Sebastian is brought up by the way he speaks to Sebastian and the way he comes to Llyria with him even though he can go to jail. The last example of love is Maria and Toby, we know that Maria’s love is true but whether or not Toby loves her is a mystery. Oliva’s love for Cesario, Toby and Maria, Oliva and Sebastian, â€Å"Oliva’s† letter to Malvolio, Viola and Orsino, and Orsino’s love for Oliva easily show that love is a central them in Twelfth Night. How to cite Twelfth Night Explores the Nature of Love, Papers

Down The Shafta With Nafta Essay Research free essay sample

Down The Shafta With Nafta Essay, Research Paper Down the SHAFTA with NAFTA Introduction The North American Free Trade Agreement ( NAFTA ) is a regional trade treaty that calls for the riddance of all duties and trade barriers bing among Canada, Mexico, and the United States of America ( # 8221 ; North Agreement # 8221 ; 420 ) . Some duties disappeared instantly when NAFTA took consequence, while others will extinguish over a 15-year period. The treaty besides includes bilateral commissariats intended to decide sensitive issues between the spouses. Supporters maintain that this regional integrating venture would take to benefits for North America much like those that accrued to the members of the European Community, because it would make a individual market of 370 million people bring forthing and devouring goods and services. For Canada, NAFTA extends the 1989 Canadian-American Free Trade Agreement and promises extra benefits for consumers, makers, and the agricultural sector. For Mexico, the understanding establishes an docket for continued advancement and farther economic reforms. We will write a custom essay sample on Down The Shafta With Nafta Essay Research or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page For the United States, NAFTA is more equivocal, since it pits concerns against labour brotherhoods and skilled professionals against unskilled mill workers concerned about losing occupations to Mexican labourers if US companies decide to travel south. NAFTA opponents mention this possible loss of American occupations and the deficiency of equal environmental protections as sufficient cause to reject the understanding. In response to these expostulations, US President Bill Clinton concluded several side-agreements to protect the environment and to forestall unjust competition from Mexican low-wage earners. The three states ratified the treaty in 1993, and it went into consequence January 1, 1994. Five old ages after its debut, the North American Free Trade Agreement fails to bring forth its promised benefits. Even its supporters have been forced to admit that prosperity, occupations, and environmental killings have non materialized. These unrealized promises have crippled the North American Free Trade Agreement ; plenty so, many are naming NAFTA a failure. Counter-Argument The North American Free Trade Agreement calls for several benefits in cardinal service sectors. Expanded trade in fiscal services is one illustration. Due to NAFTA, Mexico has opened its fiscal services markets to US and Canadian Bankss and securities houses, which allows these new participants to set up entirely owned subordinates and engage in the same scope of operations as similar Mexican houses ( North American Perspectives 24 ) . Because transitional limitations will be phased out by January 1, 2000, Mexico s ability to put future restraints on foreign-owned houses will be limited. Other fiscal services, including leasing and consumer finance, have already established operations in Mexico and are non capable to any restrictions. In add-on, Mexicans and Canadians are guaranteed the right to buy fiscal services from houses in the United States. Another long-run benefit from NAFTA is the new chances for insurance. NAFTA eliminates limitations on US ownership and proviso of services in the $ 3.5 billion Mexican Insurance Market ( 27 ) . US and Canadian houses with bing joint ventures were permitted to obtain 100 per centum ownership by 1996 ; new entrants to the market could hold obtained a bulk interest in Mexican houses by 1998 and 100 per centum ownership by the twelvemonth 2000 ( 27 ) . New entrants may get down their entirely owned houses in Mexico instantly, capable to certain size restrictions in consequence until January 1, 2000 ( 27 ) . US insurance companies may sell lading insurance, and reinsurance on a cross-border footing in Mexico. They may besides sell life, wellness, and travel insurance to Mexican occupants who come to the United States. NAFTA besides opens Mexico s market for international truck, coach, and inveigh conveyance. It besides locks in US entree to Canada s already unfastened transit market. Presently, over 90 per centum of US trade with Mexico is shipped by land ( 28 ) . NAFTA besides provides US and Canadian charter and tour coach operators full and immediate entree to the cross-border market. Regular bus path companies gained full cross-border entree in 1996 ( 30 ) . US and Canadian hauling and coach companies gained the right to put up international lading subordinates or new companies in Mexico, every bit good as acquired minority ownership in 1995, bulk ownership by 2000, and 100 per centum ownership in 2003 ( 30 ) . NAFTA has besides for good opened the Mexican market for US and Canadian railwaies, locking in the market-oriented reforms undertaken by the Mexican National Railroad. This permits US and Canadian railwaies to market their services straight to consumers, use their ain engines, concept and ain terminuss in Mexico, and supply substructure funding ( Coffey 51 ) . However, these benefits do non account for the imperfectnesss that the North American Free Trade Agreement suffers. Because of NAFTA, pollution along the US-Mexican boundary line is increasing to a great extent. The public wellness, due to lax environmental and nutrient importation Torahs, is in serious danger. And the prosperity promised by NAFTA though the creative activity of occupations has non materialized. Jobs and Wages NAFTA has efficaciously reduced the figure and quality of US occupations. Advocates claimed that NAFTA would make 200,000 occupations yearly in its first two old ages. This anticipation was based on the premise of an increasing US trade excess with Mexico, utilizing a US Commerce Department expression that estimates occupations per billion dollars of net exports. However, harmonizing to this method of analysis, NAFTA has cost the US at least 400,000 occupations ( Riley n. pag. ) . But, obscure economic estimations need non be relied upon when a wealth of experiential informations provides conclusive grounds. As of April 15, 1998, the figure of US workers certified by the US Department of Labor as holding lost their occupations because of NAFTA ( under the narrowly defined NAFTA Trade Adjustment Assistance [ NAFTA TAA ] ) had reached 170,395 ( Riley n. pag. ) . These figures, stand foring 2,601 houses in 48 provinces, are merely the tip of the NAFTA job-loss iceberg. Not merely are se rvice workers officially excluded from the plan, but besides many employees who could use, prefer to turn to more generous, less # 8220 ; administratively constipated # 8221 ; plans ( Riley n. pag. ) . Harmonizing to the Florida Department of Agriculture, for illustration, over 100-state tomato processing and wadding workss closed after the understanding s origin with a loss of 40,000 occupations. Merely one of these companies is registered in the NAFTA TAA plan records ( Riley n. pag. ) . Similarly, in December 1996, employees of Guess Clothing Company were sent packing when 1,000 occupations were shunted from Los Angeles to less labor-costly countries, including 800 to Mexico ( Riley n. pag. ) . None of these occupation losingss appear in the records of NAFTA s TAA. On the other side of the coin, NAFTA advocates can merely place a few thousand specific NAFTA-created occupations. In February 1997, a survey compiled by Public Citizen found that 89 % of the companies that had made specific promises to make occupations under NAFTA had failed to run into their job-creation promises ( NAFTA # 8217 ; s Broken n. pag. ) . Alternatively, research revealed that many of these companies had really discharged 1000s of US workers in order to relocate to Mexico. Corporate advocates such as Allied Signal, General Electric, Johnson A ; Johnson, Kimberly-Clark ( once Scott Paper ) , Lucent Technologies ( once AT A ; T ) , Mattel, Proctor A ; Gamble, Siemens, Whirlpool, Xerox and Zenith oiled a smooth transition for NAFTA s execution by guaranting everybody that they would make more occupations, or at the worst, maintain bing employment degrees in their mills. Two old ages subsequently, all 11 companies had accumulated regretful job-loss records. Allied Signal , for illustration, had laid off 1,125 US workers in eight provinces to relocate mills to Mexico under NAFTA. General Electric shed 2,608 occupations in six provinces for the same ground ( Uchitelle D2 ) . Another job that has emerged is existent rewards have declined since NAFTA # 8217 ; s debut. Under Chapter 11 of the NAFTA understanding, investors are granted new rights and protections for switching employment from one NAFTA state to the following ( Betts 31 ) . NAFTA boosters were acute to guarantee the US that increased trade under NAFTA would non merely vouch new occupations, but a greater per centum of high-wage, high-skill employment. However, in the United States, Canada and Mexico, rewards have declined since the execution of NAFTA ( # 8221 ; Drop Countries # 8221 ; n. pag. ) . Between 1993 and 1996 there was a 4.1 per cent diminution in rewards in the US, while in California, the province with the largest economic system in the US, rewards fell 3.1 per cent ( # 8221 ; Drop Countries # 8221 ; n. pag. ) . US informations reveal that American workers who have lost their occupations to cheaper employees across the boundary line, are mostly re-employed in the lower pay service sector ( Uchitelle D2 ) . In fact, the US Labor Department predicts that over the following decennary the top four job-growth classs will be tellers, janitors, retail gross revenues clerks, and servers and waitresses ( D2 ) . Faced with dissatisfied staff, US companies progressively point out the insecure land upon which their employees stand. A study commissioned by the Secretariat of the NAFTA Commission for Labor Co-operation found that, since the execution of NAFTA, the figure of US companies endangering to switch their workss and employment installations to Mexico, in response to staff turbulency and unionisation, has tripled ( D2 ) . The Environment A ; Public Health NAFTA has besides contributed to an environmental and wellness calamity along the 2000-mile US-Mexican boundary line. NAFTA began its 3rd twelvemonth sinking in a sea of unbroken promises associating to the environment, public wellness, occupations and rewards. NAFTA has intensified terrible jobs of H2O and air pollution, risky wastes dumping, and increased the incidence rates of certain diseases and birth defects in the boundary line part ( Fraser n. pag. ) . In its study, NAFTA s Broken Promises: The Border Betrayed, Public Citizen said NAFTA s advocates promised a healthier and environmentally cleaner boundary line ( NAFTA # 8217 ; s Broken n. pag. ) . These positive elements would ensue from fewer maquiladoras, a foreign-owned mill in Mexico, concentrating on the US-Mexican boundary line, more wealth in Mexican boundary line communities, and NAFTA-created establishments that would heighten environmental jurisprudence enforcement and co-ordinate support for killing undertakings. Vice President Al Gore voiced the positions mentioned above in a 1993 televised argument with H. Ross Perot. Perot said one Mexican attractive force was slack environmental controls. Gore responded that NAFTA would give the US clout over Mexico with regard to environmental criterions ( Fraser n. pag. ) . Pro-NAFTA lobbyists agreed. Calman Cohen of the Emergency Committee for American Trade, stand foring major US corporations, said: For those who are seeking to state that we will see more installations [ maquiladoras ] . I say it is 180 grades the other manner. Those are the installations that will shut down # 8221 ; ( Fraser n. pag. ) . Public Citizen s study says, nevertheless, that maquiladora growing had increased 20 per centum in NAFTA s first two old ages ( NAFTA # 8217 ; s Broken n. pag. ) . In add-on, the study contends, the maquiladora industry is altering from assembly workss to all-out fabrication installations. The environmental reverberations of increased activity includes an addition in the creative activity of risky waste, much of which the study says is merely washed down the drain # 8221 ; ( NAFTA # 8217 ; s Broken n. pag. ) . Merely 70 of the 352 industries bring forthing risky waste study proper disposal. Public Citizen quotes Oscar Canton Zetin, chair of the Mexican Ecology Commission, who said, Each twelvemonth, seven million dozenss of toxic waste are, without controls, illicitly dumped in drains and marine Waterss. Merely 1 per centum are under surveillance in the state ( Zetin qtd. in NAFTA # 8217 ; s Broken n. pag. ) . The impact of NAFTA on the occupants wellness on both sides of the boundary line is besides serious. Prior to NAFTA s blessing by the US Congress, remarkably high degrees of birth defects along the US-Mexico boundary line were being examined. Lloyd Bentsen, so Treasury Secretary, said he had seen babes with birth defects and added, The NAFTA bundle gives us the ability to guarantee that those jobs will be addressed ( Milich and Varady n. pag. ) . The incidence of nervous tubing birth defects has non improved since NAFTA took consequence in 1994, and may really be increasing. The rate of anencephalia ( a rare birth defect in which full-term babes are born with uncomplete or losing encephalons and/or skulls ) has declined nationally in the US but increased in Texas ( NAFTA # 8217 ; s Broken n. pag. ) . Brownsville, Texas, a boundary line town, is peculiarly affected. Brownsville s sister metropolis is Matamoros, Mexico, and a 1995 epidemiology study correlating 12 old ages of Matamoros industrial activity and Brownsville anencephalia rates, finds that the prevalence of anencephalia is strongly correlated to the degree of activity at the nearby Matamoros maquiladora zone ( NAFTA # 8217 ; s Broke n N. pag. ) . Another wellness issue is low-birth weights of the boundary line community babes. Harmonizing to the Public Citizen study, the Journal of Industrial Medicine published a survey in December 1993 that says adult females working in garment and electronics maquila workss in Tijuana, Mexico had babes with lower birth weights than babes born to adult females working in service-related industries ( NAFTA # 8217 ; s Broken n. pag. ) . The issue is highlighted because more than 350,000 adult females working in maquiladoras are of generative age. Another wellness issue impacting the treaty is the spread of waterborne infective disease. Representative Ron Coleman argued that transition of NAFTA would assist control waterborne infective disease, The incidence of hepatitis, bacillary dysentery, and amoebiasis along the boundary line is two to three times the national norm. Fifteen per centum of the households populating in the colonias [ boundary line slums ] study at least one household member suffers from diarrhoea every hebdomad. This statute law seeks nil more to protect hapless kids from going ill ( NAFTA # 8217 ; s Broken n. pag. ) . Public Citizen says instead than decrease, the incidence of infective diseases has in some instances increased. For case, two old ages after NAFTA was implemented, the hepatitis rate in the boundary line part remained two to five times the US national norm. Waterborne disease had besides grown drastically in some countries ( NAFTA # 8217 ; s Broken n. pag. ) . Advocates besides promised NAFTA would clean border-area H2O. Since NAFTA, there have been no appreciable alterations in the public H2O or sewerage intervention substructure. And the boundary line part s H2O deficit crisis is turning with terrible drouth that has plagued Northern Mexico and Southern Texas for the past three old ages. Improvements in that substructure have been promised. The Clinton Administration said the NAFTA-related Border Environmental Cooperation Agreement would supply new funding for undertakings to handle effluent and supply clean imbibing H2O ( NAFTA Environment 42 ) . In world, several H2O and sewerage undertakings under manner before NAFTA have been halted as a consequence of the Mexican economic depression ( 41 ) . The rush in funding for such undertakings promised by NAFTA protagonists neer materialized. Food and Farm Food safety and agribusiness have besides been affected by the execution of NAFTA. US agricultural imports from Canada and Mexico have increased 57 % since 1993. Five old ages after NAFTA, 52 % of all US fruit and vegetable imports come from Mexico ( # 8221 ; New Tables # 8221 ; A2 ) . During this same period, Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) reviews of imported nutrient declined from 8 % of entire imports to less than 2 % ( A2 ) . Besides, NAFTA does non necessitate member states to keep a minimal degree of nutrient safety criterions. The inundation of fruit and vegetable imports from Mexico coincides with terrible cuts to Mexico # 8217 ; s domestic nutrient review budget. In 1992, Mexico # 8217 ; s disbursement on nutrient safety was US $ 25 million, but by 1995 had been slashed to US $ 5 million ( A2 ) . In 1997, an eruption of potentially fatal Hepatitis A from frozen strawberries imported from Mexico sickened 270 people in five US provinces, including 130 kids in Michigan ( A2 ) . The kids had received the strawberries through the Federal Government # 8217 ; s countrywide school tiffin plan. NAFTA besides forbids particular, more strict reviews on Mexican green goods imports. In 1993, imported strawberries from Mexico were found to hold an 18.4 % misdemeanor rate for illegal degrees of pesticides ( A2 ) . Five old ages subsequently, Mexican strawberry imports into the US have increased 31 % under NAFTA, and consist 96 % of entire US strawberry imports ( A2 ) . US agribusiness is in crisis. The # 8220 ; free market-free trade # 8221 ; farm policies of the ninetiess have gutted US wheat, winter fruit and vegetable, and tomato manufacturers. And they have tied the custodies of policymakers forestalling them from safeguarding US husbandmans from the dumping that has resulted from recent dazes like the currency depreciation in Canada and the suppression of world-wide demand for trade goods caused by the Asiatic fiscal crisis. In add-on, as a consequence of NAFTA, US manufacturers are now forced to vie with merchandises from Mexico, where agribusiness though non farm workers or consumers benefit from lower rewards and less strict criterions on pesticide residues, bacterial taint and other possible public wellness menaces. Meanwhile, since NAFTA, the figure of little US husbandmans has declined 9 % while the per centum of US farm families at or near the federal poorness degree has skyrocketed to 93 % ( Menser n. pag. ) . Consumer monetary value s for nutrient, nevertheless, have non dropped. A consensus among husbandmans from all three NAFTA states is emerging about NAFTA # 8217 ; s effects on the agricultural trade. While agricultural exports have increased under NAFTA, neither husbandmans in Canada, Mexico nor the US have reaped benefits in an addition in their criterion of life. During the five old ages of NAFTA, US exports to Canada and Mexico grew 35 % , but net farm incomes have remained the same ( Menser n. pag. ) . In fact, 45 % of US small- and moderate-sized farms suffered existent diminutions in income ( Menser n. pag. ) . During that same period, Canadian agricultural exports to the US grew 57 % , but net farm income in Canada hasn # 8217 ; t caught up to 1986 degrees ( Menser n. pag. ) . Over the past five old ages, the worldwide US agricultural trade excess has been turning. However, since 1993, the US agricultural excess with Mexico and Canada has declined by two tierces under NAFTA ( Menser n. pag. ) . Under NAFTA, Mexican tomato imports have increased 63 % ( # 8221 ; NAFTA Woes # 8221 ; n. pag. ) . Between 1993 and 1998, over 100 Florida tomato husbandmans have gone out of concern and 24 wadding houses have closed ( # 8221 ; NAFTA Woes # 8221 ; n. pag. ) . The loss of tomato husbandmans has cost Florida agriculture $ 1 billion ( # 8221 ; NAFTA Woes # 8221 ; n. pag. ) . During the same period, consumer monetary values for tomatoes increased by 16 % ( # 8221 ; NAFTA Woes # 8221 ; n. pag. ) . NAFTA # 8217 ; s prohibitions on import quotas and snap-back duties ( duties that kick in when domestic manufacturers are threatened by dumping of trade goods on the US market ) have made US husbandmans and meat manufacturers vulnerable to inundations of inexpensive imports from Canada. Canada # 8217 ; s currency has suffered a drastic depreciation of 11 % over the past twelvemonth, doing Canadian agricultural imports much cheaper. This has hurt many US husbandmans, particularly hog husbandmans who have watched pig monetary values fall 62 % since 1997 ( Barboza C4 ) . This has been attributed in portion to the inflow of Canadian pigs, which have increased from a pre-NAFTA degree of 670,000 caput in 1992 to an tremendous sum of 5 million caput by the terminal of 1998 ( C4 ) . Yet, consumer monetary values for porc remain the same as they were last twelvemonth, and have increased 6 % in existent footings since 1993 ( C4 ) . Before the 1988 Canada-US Free Trade Agreement and NAFTA, Canadian wheat imports to the US a major wheat manufacturer and exporter were virtually zero. Five old ages after NAFTA, the US is Canada # 8217 ; s figure two export market for wheat. US imports of Canadian spring wheat increased 2,000 % , to 1.45 million dozenss, from 1990 to 1997. The Canadian wheat inundation has taken its toll on US wheat husbandmans, who are prevented by NAFTA from enforcing new quotas, imposed on Canadian wheat in 1994, have been lifted. The large victors under NAFTA have been big # 8220 ; agribusiness # 8221 ; companies working the below-market priced inexpensive imports to drive down domestic trade good monetary values such as wheat, pigs and cowss. NAFTA # 8217 ; s market entree commissariats guarantee that the US imports Canadian wheat even though US grain stocks are high ( # 8221 ; Message Pork # 8221 ; 35 ) . One observer notes the same pattern with below-market priced cattle imports: # 8220 ; Iowa Beef Packers is conveying Canadian cowss in and utilizing it to drive the market against our people. . . .There would be no NAFTA without transnational corporations. Somebody didn # 8217 ; Ts wake up one forenoon and state, Hey, allow # 8217 ; s open the boundary lines # 8221 ; ( # 8221 ; Message Pork # 8221 ; 35 ) . Decision NAFTA has non merely failed to supply some of its promised benefits, but it has led alternatively to unemployment, environmental desolation, and serious wellness jobs. The few donees have been corporations who benefit from deregulating that reduces their costs and the free market that they mostly control. The North American Free Trade Agreement has proved a failure and at the really least must be revised in order to counterbalance for the amendss that have occurred. Equally long as economic motivations are behind any statute law, people and the environment will unluckily ever be expendable. Bibliography Barboza, David. Farmers are in Crisis as Hog monetary values Collapse. The New York Times. 13 December 1998: C4. Betts, Diane C. Crisis on the Rio Grande: Poverty, Unemployment, and Economic Development on the Texas-Mexico Border. Boulder: Westview Press, 1994. Bosworth, Barry. Coming Together? : Mexico-United States Relationss. Ed. Barry Bosworth, Susan M. Collins, and Claudia Lustig. Washington D.C. : Brookings Institution Press, 1997. Buell, John. Slow-Tracking NAFTA. The Humanist. May/June 1999: 38-39. Coffey, Peter. NAFTA Past, Present, and Future. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1999. Drop Seen in Real Wagess in All Three Countries. Journal of Commerce Online. n. pag. Online. Microsoft Internet Explorer. 26 June 1999. Available: www.joc.com. Tormenting, John H. Alliance Capitalism and Global Business. New York: Rutledge, 1997. Ewins, Adrian. Review Farm Policy Now, Demands Going NFU Head. The Western Producer. 10 December 1998: 22. Fraser, C. Gerald. NAFTA s Environmental Problems. Earth Times News Service. 1996: n. pag. Online. Microsoft Internet Explorer. 9 May 1999. Available: www.hartford-hwp.com. Johnson, Pierre-Marc. The Environment and NAFTA: Understanding and Implementing the New Continental Law. Washington D.C. : Island Press, 1996. Kingsworth, Paul. Column: A Very Happy Birthday for NAFTA. The Ecologist. Jan/Feb 1999: 11-12. McAllen, Lowry. Subtle Trade Barriers Protect Mexico. Successful Farming. September 1998. n. pag. Online. Shawnee State University Beartrack. 3 July 1999. Available: www.shawnee.edu. Menser, Paul. Trading Incrimination: Idaho Farmers are Fighting to See How NAFTA Benefits Their Bottom Line. Post Register. 12 July 1998. n. pag. Online. Shawnee State University Beartrack. 3 July 1999. Available: www.shawnee.edu. Message Delivered Through Free Pork. The Western Producer. 10 December 1998: 35. Milich, Robert G and Lenard Varady. Pull offing Transboundary Resources: Lessons from River-Basin Accords. Environment. October 1998. n. pag. Online. Shawnee State University Beartrack. 3 July 1999. Available: www.shawnee.edu. NAFTA and the Environment. Ed. Seymour J. Rubin and Dean C. Alexander. Boston: Kluwer Law International, 1996. NAFTA and Sovereignty: Tradeoffs For Canada, Mexico, and the United States. Ed. Joyce Hoebring, Sidney Weintraub, and Delal Baer. Washington D.C. : Center for Strategic and International Studies, 1996. NAFTA Increases Brussel Sprout Woes. Financial Times. 30 November 1998. n. pag. Online. Shawnee State University Beartrack. 3 July 1999. Available: www.shawnee.edu. NAFTA s Broken Promises: The Border Betrayed. Public Citizen. 1996: n. pag. Online. Microsoft Internet Explorer. 9 May 1999. Available: www.citizen.org. # 8220 ; New Dangers Make manner to US Tables. Boston Globe. 20 September 1998: A2. North American Free Trade Agreement. The Encyclopedia Americana. 1996 Ed. North American Free Trade Agreement: labour, Industry, and authorities Positions, The. Ed. Mario F Boganno and Kathryn Ready. Westport: Quorum Books, 1993. Riley, Michael. NAFTA restructures Border Economies. Insight on the News. 28 December 1998. n. pag. Online. Shawnee State University Beartrack. 3 July 1999. Available: www.shawnee.edu. Ross, John. Tortilla Wars. The Progressive. June 1999: 34-35. Sforza, Lori and Michelle Wallach. NAFTA at 5. The State. 25 January 1999: 7. Stokes, Bruce. It s Time to Tinker With a Trade Deal. National Journal. 22 May 1999: 1418. Suppan, Steve. The Fast Track Myth. Letter. Agri News. 16 July 1998: 8. Uchitelle, Louis. The Economy Grows. The Smoke Stacks Shrink. New York Times. 29 NOV 98: D15. von Bertrab, Hermann. Negociating North american free trade agreement: A Mexican Envoy s Account. Westport: The Center for Strategic and International Studies, 1997. Weber, Joseph. A NAFTA Dollar: Not Now, Possibly Later. Business Week. 22 Feb 1999: 34. Wildavsky, Ben. Not Happy After NAFTA. U.S. News and World Report. 11 January 1999: 49.

Adolescence Summary 1 Essay Example

Adolescence Summary 1 Essay Adolescence (from Latin: adolescere meaning to grow up)[1] is a transitional stage of physical and mental human development generally occurring between puberty and legal adulthood (age of majority),[1] but largely characterized as beginning and ending with the teenage stage. [2][3][4] According to Erik Eriksons stages of human development, for example, a young adult is generally a person between the ages of 20 and 40, whereas an adolescent is a person between the ages of 13 and 19. 3][4] Historically, puberty has been heavily associated with teenagers and the onset of adolescent development. [5][6] However, the start of puberty has had somewhat of an increase in preadolescence (particularly females, as seen with early and precocious puberty), and adolescence has had an occasional extension beyond the teenage years (typically males) compared to previous generations. These changes have made it more difficult to rigidly define the time frame in which adolescence occurs. [7][8][9][10] The end of adolescence and the beginning of adulthood varies by country and by function, and furthermore even within a single nation-state or culture there can be different ages at which an individual is considered to be (chronologically and legally) mature enough to be entrusted by society with certain tasks. Such milestones include, but are not limited to, driving a vehicle, having legal sexual relations, serving in the armed forces or on a jury, purchasing and drinking alcohol, voting, entering into contracts, completing certain levels of education, and marrying. Adolescence is usually accompanied by an increased independence allowed by the parents or legal guardians and less supervision, contrary to the preadolescence stage. Contents [hide] 1 History 2 Puberty 3 Psychology 4 Sexuality 5 Culture 6 Legal issues, rights and privileges 7 See also 7. 1 Human development and psychology 7. 1. 1 Compare with 7. 2 Literature 8 References [edit] History In many societies, adolescence was not recognized as a phase of life. Most societies simply distinguished between childhood and adulthood. Stanley Hall is generally credited with discovering adolescence with his 1904 study Adolescence in which he describes the developmental phase now recognized as adolescence. Hall attributed the new stage to social changes at the turn of the 20th century. Child labor laws kept individuals under 16 out of the work force, and universal education laws kept them in secondary school, thus prolonging the period of dependence — a dependence that allowed them to address psychological tasks they might have ignored when they took on adult roles straight out of childhood. 11] [edit] Puberty Upper body of teenage boy. The structure has changed to resemble an adult form. Main article: Puberty Puberty is a period of several years in which rapid physical growth and psychological changes occur, culminating in sexual maturity. The average onset of puberty is at 10 for girls and age 12 for boys. [12] Every persons individual timetable for puberty is influenced primarily by heredity, although envi ronmental factors, such as diet and exercise, also exert some influence. 12][13][14] These factors can also contribute to precocious puberty and delayed puberty. [10][14] Puberty begins with a surge in hormone production, which in turn causes a number of physical changes. [12] It is also the stage of life in which a child develops secondary sex characteristics (for example, a deeper voice and larger adams apple in boys, and development of breasts and more curved and prominent hips in girls) as his or her hormonal balance shifts strongly towards an adult state. This is triggered by the pituitary gland, which ecretes a surge of hormonal agents into the blood stream, initiating a chain reaction. The male and female gonads are subsequently activated, which puts them into a state of rapid growth and development; the triggered gonads now commence the mass production of the necessary chemicals. The testes primarily release testosterone, and the ovaries predominantly dispense estrogen. The production of these hormones increases gradually until sexual maturation is met. Some boys may develop gynecomastia due to an imbalance of sex hormones, tissue responsiveness or obesity. [15][16] We will write a custom essay sample on Adolescence Summary 1 specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Adolescence Summary 1 specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Adolescence Summary 1 specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Facial hair in males normally appears in a specific order during puberty: The first facial hair to appear tends to grow at the corners of the upper lip, typically between 14 to 16 years of age. [17][18] It then spreads to form a moustache over the entire upper lip. This is followed by the appearance of hair on the upper part of the cheeks, and the area under the lower lip. [17] The hair eventually spreads to the sides and lower border of the chin, and the rest of the lower face to form a full beard. [17] As with most human biological processes, this specific order may vary among some individuals. Facial hair is often present in late adolescence, around ages 17 and 18, but may not appear until significantly later. [18][19] Some men do not develop full facial hair for 10 years after puberty. [18] Facial hair will continue to get coarser, darker and thicker for another 2–4 years after puberty. [18] The major landmark of puberty for males is the first ejaculation, which occurs, on average, at age 13. [20] For females, it is menarche, the onset of menstruation, which occurs, on average, between ages 12 and 13. [13] The age of menarche is influenced by heredity, but a girls diet and lifestyle contribute as well. 13] Regardless of genes, a girl must have certain proportion of body fat to attain menarche. [13] Consequently, girls who have a high-fat diet and who are not physically active begin menstruating earlier, on average, than girls whose diet contains less fat and whose activities involve fat reducing exercise (e. g. ballet and gymnastics). [13][14] Girls who experience malnutrition or are in societies in which children are expected to perform physical labor also begin menstruating at later ages. [13] The timing of puberty can have important psychological and social consequences. Early maturing boys are usually taller and stronger than their friends. [21] They have the advantage in capturing the attention of potential partners and in becoming hand-picked for sports. Pubescent boys often tend to have a good body image, are more confident, secure, and more independent. [22] Late maturing boys can be less confident because of poor body image when comparing themselves to already developed friends and peers. However, early puberty is not always positive for boys; early sexual maturation in boys can be accompanied by increased aggressiveness due to the surge of hormones that affect them. 22] Because they appear older than their peers, pubescent boys may face increased social pressure to conform to adult norms; society may view them as more emotionally advanced, despite the fact that their cognitive and social development may lag behind their appearance. [22] Studies have shown that early maturing boys are more likely to be sexually active and are more likely to par ticipate in risky behaviors. [23] For girls, early maturation can sometimes lead to increased self-consciousness, though a typical aspect in maturing females. 24] Because of their bodies developing in advance, pubescent girls can become more insecure. [24] Consequently, girls that reach sexual maturation early are more likely than their peers to develop eating disorders. Nearly half of all American high school girls diet is to lose weight. [24] In addition, girls may have to deal with sexual advances from older boys before they are emotionally and mentally mature. [25] In addition to having earlier sexual experiences and more unwanted pregnancies than late maturing girls, early maturing girls are more exposed to alcohol and drug abuse. 26] Those who have had such experiences tend to perform less well in school than their inexperienced age peers. [27] Girls have usually reached full physical development by ages 15–17,[28][29][30] while boys usually complete puberty by ages 16–18. [28][29][31] Any increas e in height beyond these ages is uncommon. Girls attain reproductive maturity about 4 years after the first physical changes of puberty appear. [30] In contrast, boys accelerate more slowly but continue to grow for about 6 years after the first visible pubertal changes. 22][31] Teenage and early adult males may continue to gain natural muscle growth even after puberty. [22] Approximate outline of development periods in child and teenager development. Adolescence is marked in red at top right. [edit] Psychology Main article: Adolescent psychology Expressed hostile attitude of a teenage girl. Adolescence is characterized by a number of cognitive, emotional, physical and attitudinal changes, which can be a cause of conflict on one hand and positive personality development on the other. The home environment and parents are still important for the behaviors and choices of adolescents. 32] Adolescents who have a good relationship with their parents are less likely to engage in various risk behaviors, such as smoking, drinking, fighting, and/or sexual intercourse. [32] In conflict with their parents, adolescents are more flexible than younger children, but more hostile and rigid compared to adults. The topics of conflicts between adolescents and their parents are often about the extent to which parents can control and supervise the adolescent, for instance conflicts about chores, schoolwork, curfew, and the adolescents right to privacy. 33] For the first time in their lives adolescents may start to view their friends, their peer group, as more important and influential than their parents or guardians. [34] Peer groups offer its members the opportunity to develop various social skills, such as empathy, sharing and leadership. Peer groups can have positive influences on an individual, for instance on academic motivation and performance, but they can also have negative influences and lead to an increase in experimentation with drugs, drinking, vandalism, and stealing. 35] Susceptibility to peer pressure increases during early adolescence, peaks around age 14, and declines thereafter. [36] In the search for a unique social identity for themselves, adolescents are frequently confused about what is right and what is wrong. G. Stanley Hall denoted this period as one of Storm and Stress and, according to him, conflict at this developmental stage is normal and not unusual. Margaret Mead, on the other hand, attributed the behavior of adolescents to their culture and upbringing. [37] Adolescence is also a time for rapid cognitive development. [38] Piaget describes adolescence as the stage of life in which the individuals thoughts start taking more of an abstract form and the egocentric thoughts decrease. This allows the individual to think and reason in a wider perspective. [39] A combination of behavioural and fMRI studies have demonstrated development of executive functions, that is, cognitive skills that enable the control and coordination of thoughts and behaviour, which are generally associated with the prefrontal cortex. 40] The thoughts, ideas and concepts developed at this period of life greatly influence ones future life, playing a major role in character and personality formation. [41] Adolescent psychology is associated with notable changes in mood sometimes known as mood swings. [citation needed] Positive psychology is sometimes brought up when addressing adolescent psychology as well. This approach towards adolescents refers to providing them with mo tivation to become socially acceptable and notable individuals, since many adolescents find themselves bored, indecisive and/or unmotivated. [42] Struggles with adolescent identity and depression usually set in when an adolescent experiences a loss. The most important loss in their lives is the changing relationship between the adolescent and their parents. Adolescents may also experience strife in their relationships with friends. This may be due to the activities their friends take part in, such as smoking, which causes adolescents to feel as though participating in such activities themselves is likely essential to maintaining these friendships. Teen depression can be extremely intense at times because of physical and hormonal changes but emotional instability is part of adolescence. Their changing mind, body and relationships often present themselves as stressful and that change, they assume, is something to be feared. [43] Sleep deprivation has also been linked to adolescent depression, particularly in the teen years. [44] Views of family relationships during adolescence are changing. The old view of family relationships during adolescence put an emphasis on conflict and disengagement and thought storm and stress was normal and even inevitable. However, the new view puts emphasis on transformation or relationships and maintenance of connectedness. [citation needed] edit] Sexuality Main article: Adolescent sexuality Adolescent sexuality refers to sexual feelings, behavior and development in adolescents and is a stage of human sexuality. Sexuality and sexual desire usually begins to intensify along with the onset of puberty. The expression of sexual desire among adolescents (or anyone, for that matter), might be influenced by family values and the culture and rel igion they have grown up in (or as a backlash to such), social engineering, social control, taboos, and other kinds of social mores. Teenage couples at a fair in the American West. In contemporary society, adolescents also face some risks as their sexuality begins to transform. Whilst some of these such as emotional distress (fear of abuse or exploitation) and sexually transmitted diseases (including HIV/AIDS) may not necessarily be inherent to adolescence, others such as pregnancy (through non-use or failure of contraceptives) are seen as social problems in most western societies. In terms of sexual identity, while all sexual orientations found in adults are also represented among adolescents, statistically the suicide rate amongst LGBT adolescents is up to four times higher than that of their heterosexual peers. 45] According to anthropologist Margaret Mead and psychologist Albert Bandura,[citation needed] the turmoil found in adolescence in Western society has a cultural rather than a physical cause; they reported that societies where young women engaged in free sexual activity had no such adolescent turmoil. In a 2008 study conducted by YouGov for Channel 4 , 20% of 14? 17-year-olds surveyed revealed that they had their first sexual experience at 13 or under. [46] Another study from 2002 found that those aged 15–44 reported that the average age of first sexual intercourse was 17. for males and 17. 3 for females. [47] The age of consent to sexual activity varies widely between international jurisdictions, ranging from 12 to 21 years. [48] [edit] Culture Main article: Youth subculture In commerce, this generation[clarification needed] is seen as an important target. Mobile phones, contemporary popular music, movies, television programs, websites, sports, video games and clothes are heavily marketed and often popular amongst adolescents. In the past (and still in some cultures) there were ceremonies that celebrated adulthood, typically occurring during adolescence. Seijin shiki (literally adult ceremony) is a Japanese example of this. Upanayanam is a coming of age ceremony for males in the Hindu world. In Judaism, 13-year-old boys and 12-year-old girls become Bar or Bat Mitzvah, respectively, and often have a celebration to mark this coming of age. Among some denominations of Christianity, the rite or sacrament of Confirmation is received by adolescents and may be considered the time at which adolescents become members of the church in their own right (there is also a Confirmation ceremony in some Reform Jewish temples, although the bar or bat mitzvah ceremony appears to have precedence). In United States, girls will often have a sweet sixteen party to celebrate turning the aforementioned age, a tradition similar to the quinceanera in Latin culture. In modern western society, events such as getting your first drivers license, high school and later on college graduation and first career related job are thought of as being more significant markers in transition to adulthood. Adolescents have also been an important factor in many movements for positive social change around the world. The popular history of adolescents participating in these movements may perhaps start with Joan of Arc, and extend to present times with popular youth activism, student activism, and other efforts to make the youth voice heard. [edit] Legal issues, rights and privileges Internationally, those who reach a certain age (often 18, though this varies) are legally considered to have reached the age of majority and are regarded as adults and are held to be responsible for their actions. People below this age are considered minors or children. A person below the age of majority may gain adult rights through legal emancipation. Those who are under the age of consent, or legal responsibility, may be considered too young to be held accountable for criminal action. This is called doli incapax or the defense of infancy. The age of criminal responsibility varies from 7 in India to 18 in Belgium. After reaching the initial age, there may be levels of responsibility dictated by age and type of offense, and crimes committed by minors may be tried in a juvenile court. The legal working age in Western countries is usually 14 to 16, depending on the number of hours and type of employment. In the United Kingdom and Canada, for example, young people between 14 and 16 can work at certain types of light work with some restrictions to allow for schooling; while youths over 16 can work full-time (excluding night work). Many countries also specify a minimum school leaving age, ranging from 10 to 18, at which a person is legally allowed to leave compulsory education. The age of consent to sexual activity varies widely between jurisdictions, ranging from 13 to 21 years, the average age is 16. [49] In a 2008 study of 14 to 17-year-olds conducted by YouGov for Channel 4, it was revealed that one in three 15-year-olds were sexually active. [46] Sexual intercourse with a person below the local age of consent is usually treated as the crime of statutory rape. Some jurisdictions allow an exemption where both partners are close in age; for example, a 16-year-old and an 18-year-old. The age at which people are allowed to marry also varies, from 17 in Yemen to 22 for males and 20 for females in China. In Western countries, people are typically allowed to marry at 18, although they are sometimes allowed to marry at a younger age with parental or court consent. In developing countries, the legal marriageable age does not always correspond with the age at which people actually marry; for example, the legal age for marriage in Ethiopia is 18 for both males and females, but in rural areas most girls are married by age 16. In most democratic countries, a citizen is eligible to vote at 18. For example, in the United States, the Twenty-sixth amendment decreased the voting age from 21 to 18. In a minority of countries, the voting age is 17 (for example, Indonesia) or 16 (for example, Brazil). By contrast, some countries have a minimum voting age of 21 (for example, Singapore) whereas the minimum age in Uzbekistan is 25. Age of candidacy is the minimum age at which a person can legally qualify to hold certain elected government offices. In most countries, a person must be 18 or over to stand for elected office, but some countries such as the United States and Italy have further restrictions depending on the type of office. A sign outside a sex shop reads Must Be 18 To Enter in Chapel Hill, North Carolina. The sale of selected items such as cigarettes, alcohol, and videos with violent or pornographic content is also restricted by age in most countries. In the U. S, the minimum age to buy an R-rated movie, M-rated game or an album with a parental advisory label is 17 (in some states 18 or even 21). In practice, it is common that young people engage in underage smoking or drinking, and in some cultures this is tolerated to a certain degree. In the United States, teenagers are allowed to drive between 14–18 (each state sets its own minimum driving age of which a curfew may be imposed), in the US, adolescents 17 years of age can serve in the military. In Europe it is more common for the driving age to be higher (usually 18) while the drinking age is lower than that of the US (usually 16 or 18). In Canada, the drinking age is 18 in some areas and 19 in other areas. In Australia, universally the minimum drinking age is 18, unless a person is in a private residence or is under parental supervision in a licensed premises. The driving age varies from state to state but the more common system is a graduated system of L plates (a learning license that requires supervision from a licensed driver) from age 16, red P plates (probationary license) at 17, green P plates at 18 and finally a full license, i. e. for most people around the age of 20. The legal gambling age also depends on the jurisdiction, although it is typically 18. The minimum age for donating blood in the U. S is 17 although it may be 16 with parental permission in some states such as New York, New Jersey, Wisconsin, and Pennsylvania. [citation needed] Suitable age and discretion is a legal definition of maturity. [50] A number of social scientists, including anthropologist Margaret Mead and sociologist Mike Males, have noted the contradictory treatment of laws affecting adolescents in the United States. As Males has noted, the US Supreme Court has, explicitly ruled that policy-makers may impose adult responsibilities and punishments on individual youths as if they were adults at the same time laws and policies abrogate adolescents’ rights en masse as if they were children. [citation needed] The issue of youth activism affecting political, social, educational, and moral circumstances is of growing significance around the world. Youth-led organizations around the world have fought for social justice, the youth vote seeking to gain teenagers the right to vote, to secure more youth rights, and demanding better schools through student activism. Since the advent of the Convention on the Rights of the Child in 1989 (children defined as under 18), almost every country (except the U. S. Somalia) in the world has become voluntarily legally committed to advancing an anti-discriminatory stance towards young people of all ages. This is a legally binding document which secures youth participation throughout society while acting against unchecked child labor, child soldiers, child prostitution, and pornography.

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Entrpreneurship Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Entrpreneurship - Essay Example On the other hand, sustainable entrepreneurs are entrepreneurs or firms that work in a sustainable manner and contribute to the creation of sustainable development (Weidinger et al., 2013). Sustainable development has grown significantly for the past few decades; people and corporate have come to realizes that is easy to do business sustainably. They noted that doing businesses is quite easy at the same time trying to solve issues facing the society. According to the view of sustainable entrepreneurs, challenges can be easily solved and at the same time create business strategies that have more value to the society and economy. Current society is characterized by high level of environmental destruction, climate change, and ozone depletion; such practices pose a great danger to us and the needs of futures generations. However, with sustainable entrepreneurship, environment will be safe, destruction of forest will reduce, and improvement of agricultural practices will increase. In addition, sustainable entrepreneurship is a vital opportunity to developing countries. It improves and increase access to education, creates more job opportunities, increase productivity, physical health and economy (Rendtorff, 2009). Additionally, motivations to sustainable entrepreneurship are changes in environmental businesses, in this sense, the change in demand and supply. Such change motivates an entrepreneur to stand tall and focus of sustainable entrepreneurship. A change is an opportunity; an opportunity in this perspective is availability of raw materials to start a business. It is an ethical responsibility of business firms to be more concern about sustainability; at the same time it is also legal for business to be a concern. Currently, businesses are no longer viewed by the capability to avail goods and services but, the way the avail such commodities and impacts on the society. The main aspects which businesses are more concern with are; environmental,

Devil's Knot Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Devil's Knot - Essay Example They arrested the three teenagers only on the basis of doubt and items possessed. Interrogation was done without the presence of any of the parents of the three teenagers or even the attorney. The crime seen was repeatedly changed and re recorded from the three teenagers to suite the situation and the time of the murder so that the post mortem report should also match the same time as recorded by the police. At one point the boy said they skipped the school and the murder took place in the afternoon, which did not match the murder time, and so they were encouraged to change the time of the murder. The crime sent shock waves to the entire Arkansas City and terrible tragedy what these three little boys went though before their deaths had to be painful terror. The stepfather of one of the accused was very abusive and always lied and was very much ready for the cameras always and the Press thought that this stepfather was involved with the police. The police than to accept the crime that they never committed left the three teenagers with no option. As the interrogation continued the case caught a wild fire by the press and the media and always featured as breaking news by the TV and new paper. Feeling the pressure the police had to bring the accused before the press show every body that they are already on the job.

Qualitative data analysis report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Qualitative data analysis report - Essay Example Additionally, the ease of reading the Terms and the ability of a site to secure privacy are also influencing factors. This paper concludes with a discussion of the results and brief literature review on the topic. The aim of this study is to explore better understanding of the interaction with Term and Condition among Thai student in different digital environment. This research is intended to figure out the ease in which Thai students understand Terms and Condition. The debate about the interaction between Terms and Conditions has been on the rise. This paper will provide further literature on this topic. By listening and writing down the views of Thai young individuals, the paper examines how loyalty, trust, privacy and security, and issues of terms and conditions impact the interaction. The research was conducted with a qualitative focus. Interaction of Terms and Conditions is a social experience. Exploring the interaction of students to Terms and Conditions through a qualitative focus means the interaction can be understood from both personal and social perspective. I conducted intensive individual interviews with a small number of respondents to explore their perspectives on the research question. The questions inquired the participants about their experiences and expectations related to the research question, the thoughts they have concerning online security, and about any changes they perceive in themselves as a result of their involvement in the study. In-depth interviews helped a lot when deriving detailed information about a person’s thoughts and behaviours. It offered a complete picture of the research question. It was used in place of focus groups and used to refine questions for future surveys of a particular group. In-depth interviews provide more detailed information than what is available through other data collection methods, such as surveys. It provided a more relaxed atmosphere in which to

Electrical Bone Growth Stimulator Devices

Electrical Bone Growth Stimulator Devices Nonunion and delayed fractures are prevalent in the United States, accounting for a significant health care cost (Simon Simon, 2008). Bone is able to remodel and adapt to applied loads and electromechanical stimuli (Smeltzer, Bare, Hinkle, Cheever, 2009). One method of repairing these types of fractures is with an electric bone growth stimulator, which has been used for over 25 years. There are three types of electric bone growth stimulators, all of which provide an electric current to the bone that causes the bone cells to grow and proliferate. Treatment with bone growth stimulators shortens the recovery time, however cannot be used for large gaps in the bone (Simon Simon, 2008). Clinical Significance Every year in the United States 7.9 million fractures occur (Goldstein, Sprague, Petrisor, 2010). Approximately 600,000 fractures do not heal properly. Fractures that do not heal properly are usually delayed or nonunion fractures. These fractures require treatment or surgical intervention to heal properly and cost the United States $3 to 6 billion health care dollars each year (Simon Simon, 2008). A delayed union is a fracture that heals very slowly and does not heal within a normal amount of time. Although many factors affect how long it takes for a bone to heal such as which bone is broken and the severity of the fracture, the typical healing time is about three to four months. A delayed union can be caused by several factors including, poor blood supply, not casting the bone properly, and infection (Parker, 2010). Sometimes delayed union fractures can heal on their own without intervention or treatment. A nonunion is a fracture that does not heal within twice the expected healing time, generally six to nine months after the injury. Fibrocartilage also forms between the two pieces of broken bone (Mora, Pedrotti, Galli, 2006). Figure 1 shows a nonunion fracture of the tibia, the fracture is circled in red and you can see some of the fibrocartilage that formed between the two pieces of bone. Several factors that can cause nonunion are poor blood supply, not casting the bone p roperly, infection, and loss of bone or soft tissue (Parker, 2010). A nonunion fracture will not heal on its own and requires some form of intervention. Some of the options for treating nonunion are internal and external fixation devices, bone grafts, bone substitutes, biologics like platelet extracts and bone morphogenic proteins, and biophysical stimulation including ultrasound and electrical stimulation (Simon Simon, 2008). Since the repair of delayed and nonunion fractures requires intervention and treatment, the clinical problem is how to provide an intervention that allows the patient to recover from the injury in the shortest possible amount of time with the fewest complications and the least cost (Simon Simon, 2008). The ideal treatment is to repair the fracture without surgery and hospitalization (Goldstein, Sprague, Petrisor, 2010). Therefore, electrical bone growth stimulators are frequently used to treat delayed and nonunion fractures. Research has shown that electrical stimulation is a prevalent treatment that is utilized to speed up the process of healing in delayed and nonunion fractures. In the United States, electrical bone growth stimulators have treated approximately 400,000 delayed and nonunion fractures (Goldstein, Sprague, Petrisor, 2010). Electrical bone growth stimulators, shown in Figure 2, are therapeutic devices that are used to produce and apply electric fields to bone, similar to the electric fields that occur naturally inside the body but as a result of the injury are either not being produced fast enough or are not being produced at all (Goldstein, Sprague, Petrisor, 2010). Electrical bone growth stimulators have been shown to be 88% effective for treating delayed and nonunion fractures (Nolte, van der Krans, Patka, Janssen, Ryaby, Albers, 2001). The typical treatment time with an electrical bone growth stimulator is between three and six months (Simon Simon, 2008). Biology and Physiology Humans have 206 bones in their body (Smeltzer, Bare, Hinkle, Cheever, 2009). Bone can adapt and remodel as a result of an applied force, an injury or a stimulus. Bone is made up of three types of cells, osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts, which are involved in bone formation and remodeling. Osteoblasts are cells that form bone (Smeltzer, Bare, Hinkle, Cheever, 2009). Osteocytes are formed from osteoblasts and are responsible for maintaining bone, whereas, osteoclasts are cells that absorb bone. These cells play an important role in fracture healing (Smeltzer, Bare, Hinkle, Cheever, 2009). The process of healing a fracture, shown in Figure 3, has four major steps. The first step occurs within hours following the injury and lasts for about a week. During this step, the injury causes increased blood flow and bleeding, causing a hematoma to form. This results in inflammation and swelling (Smeltzer, Bare, Hinkle, Cheever, 2009). The next step begins when fibroblasts reach the injury site then release collagen fibers and form a soft fibrocartilaginous callus between and around the two pieces of bone. The third step begins around week 4, when osteoblasts enter the callus, multiply and begin to form bone. This forms a harder bony callus that eventually turns into bone. The final stage is remodeling which starts around week 17 and continues until the bone is completely healed. During the remodeling stage, the callus is completely turned into bone by the osteoblasts, and the osteoclasts absorb the extra bone that was produced and not needed (Chiras, 2008). Market Trends The market for electrical bone growth stimulators has grown to over $500 million dollars in the last 25 years, and by 2012 the market is expected to rise to $690.1 million (Schenberger, 2007). The consumers of electrical bone growth stimulators are hospitals, orthopedic surgeons and patients with a delayed or nonunion bone fracture. Electrical bone growth stimulators have been used to treat 400,000 fractures (Simon Simon, 2008). These devices can be both invasive and noninvasive. The typical cost for a noninvasive electrical bone growth stimulator is between $3000 and $7000 and can increase to $20,000 for an invasive stimulator that requires two surgeries (Morone Feuer, 2003). Insurance will cover the cost of the device as long as the patient meets certain criteria, for example the gap between the bones must be less than 1 centimeter (CIGNA , 2010). This cost is much less than the approximately $27,000 cost for surgery and hospitalization after a procedure such as internal fixation (Hughes Anglen, 2010). Seven companies have received FDA approval (U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 2010) and the five companies that have electric bone growth stimulators on the market are Orthofix, Biomet, DJ Orthopedics (acquired the company Orthologic), Smith and Nephew and DePuy Spine (medcompare, 2010). The only company that has received FDA approval (U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 2010) and that has invasive electric bone growth stimulators on the market is Biomet (medcompare, 2010). Some of the noninvasive stimulators are shown in Figure 4 and two of the invasive stimulators from Biomet are shown in Figure 5. Bioelectric Principles Bone that goes through effective growth or repair holds an electronegative potential compared to that of resting bone (Glazer Glazer, 2001). In bone where a break or fracture has occurred with nonunion or delayed union, it has been found helpful to introduce electric stimuli to the area undergoing complications. The introduction of an electrical current allows the process of bone regeneration to reinitiate. The electrically charged particles within the current act as the missing catalyst for the necessary chemical reactions to stimulate the desired biological response of bone repair at the site of nonunion. Pulsed electrical stimulation can cause changes in the intracellular level of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and thus triggers DNA synthesis within cells (Somjen, Fischler, Binderman, 1984). The electrical current excites the Na+/K+ pump of mesenchymal osteoblasts, which causes them to differentiate into osteoblasts that produce a woven matrix of bone (Shapiro, 2008).The electronegative current (DNA synthesis) applied at the surface of the fracture site or at the surface of the skin initiates endochondral bone formation the synthesis of cartilage, closely followed by bone formation (Shapiro, 2008). Bone naturally generates an electrical field because of Wolffs Law and piezoelectric properties, which is what the electric bone growth stimulators are also based off of. Wolffs law states that bone changes its external shape and internal (cancellous) architecture in response to stresses acting on it (Hunt, 2008). Piezoelectricity (Figure 6) is the stress-generated potentials in bone in which the side of the bone under mechanical compression [becomes] electronegative and the side under tension [becomes] electropositive (Kim, Won-Ki, Sung Jac, 1984). The mineral matrix in bone is piezoelectric because of the applied force to the skeletal system from tension (resting bone), and it changes its charge when the bone is under mechanical compression (bone repair/hematoma). The electric field produces electric potentials that cause the bone cells to grow and proliferate (Kim, Won-Ki, Sung Jac, 1984). Electrical stimulation creates an increased regulation of osteoinductive growth factors as well as enhancing osteoblastic activity, and decreasing osteoclastic activity through electrochemical reactions. This all leads to the desired reactions of increased bone formation and repair. The electrical stimulation increases the transmembrane calcium translocation, which activates calmodulin, a calcium binding protein involved in inflammation (Hematoma). Electric stimuli also brings about the upregulation of BMP-2, BMP-6, BMP-7, and the BMP receptor ALK-2, which are all bone morphogenic proteins needed to promote bone regeneration (Gan, Fredericks, Glazer, 2004). At the cathode of the Electric Bone Growth Stimulator, when the electric impulse is applied, three things happen: 1) the local oxygen concentration decreases, causing an increase in the biological process of bone growth, 2) the pH level increases, resulting in a decrease of osteoclastic function, and 3) the release of hydrogen pe roxide causing macrophages to release VEGF, which stimulates the growth of blood vessels in the area of injury. These growth factors enter the tissue matrix and trigger proliferation and differentiation which causes bone to form, thus increasing the healing rate of delayed union or nonunion (Gan, Fredericks, Glazer, 2004). History Device History The history of Bone Electric Growth Stimulators dates back to the late 1780s when the biologist, Luigi Galvani used electricity on a biological system. Galvani discovered that a frog could generate muscle spasms throughout its body when an electrical charge was applied to its spinal cord. Alessandro Volta, a colleague of Galvanis, was able to reproduce these (SilcoTek, 2010). The first documentation of electrical stimulation being used to heal fractures was in 1841 by Dr. Hartshorne, when he reported that a patient with a tibial nonunion was treated with electricity. In 1850, the scientist R. W. Lente was the first to report successful use of Galvanic currents used to treat patients with nonunion. In 1892, the German scientist Wolff was the first to describe how bone formed in response to stress; this description became known as Wolffs Law (Glazer Glazer, 2001). The significant gains of healing with electrical stimulation in the 17 1800s ends with Wolffs phenomenon description of bone formation. The modern theories that the Electric Bone Growth Stimulators are based off of are from the work that Iwao Yasuda and his colleagues found in the 1950s. In 1938 Yasuda started researching electrical stimulation of square wave to organic substance at Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine (Crenshaw, 1977). In 1953, Yasuda et al discovered that bone in compression was electronegative, and bone in tension was electropositive (Glazer Glazer, 2001). From 1962 to 1964, the scientists Friedenberg and Brighton furthered Yasudas research and discovered that bone that is growing or repairing itself shows and electronegative potential, while bone that is not has an electropositive potential. This discovery has encouraged others to research electrical stimuli in relation bone regeneration (Glazer Glazer, 2001). In 1975, Dr. McElhannon published a report stating the technology used to treat fractures in humans with electrical stimulation is not yet advanced enough to promote bone regeneration, but shows promise in animals (Meadows, 2008). Two years later, Dr. Paterson et al performed an experimental model on delayed union fractures of the tibia in adult dogs. The model showed an accelerated healing time where Osteogenesis was normal, and no other abnormalities were found (Meadows, 2008). In 1978, the FDA approved the use of external bone growth stimulators (Haverbush, 2005). In 1983, Dr. Hanaoka performed a study observing the effects of pulsed micro-electrical currents on internal remodeling in long tubular bone and bone healing (Meadows, 2008). A group of 14 dogs had electrodes inserted into the femora with pulsed micro-electrical currents applied to the right femora for four weeks. The dogs were split into groups and each group had different electrical currents (Hz) applied. The results s howed that bone healing in all cases was promoted (Meadows, 2008). Dr. Ahl et al, in 1984, used a semi invasive technique for bone healing on 23 patients with nonunion. Ten of those had solid bone regeneration, and the other 13 did not fully unite these were later determined to have been breaks that were too far apart (Meadows, 2008). In 1985, Dr. Kondo performed a study on the femur of dogs. The bones in the experimental group observed proliferation of osteoblasts on the third day, which transitioned into bone remodeling and a shortened healing time by the end of the third week (Meadows, 2008). In 1995, Dr. Zamora-Navas et al performed a study on 22 patients with nonunion, with a gap of 0.5 or more, using capacitively-coupled electrical signal for a treatment time of about 26 weeks. In the end, over 70% of the 22 had solid bone union if the gap was 1 cm or smaller (Meadows, 2008). In 1996, the FDA approved the use of Electrical Bone Growth Stimulators, both invasive and noninvasiv e. Patent History On May 31, 1977, Dr. Levys bone generating device was approved. The stimulator produced electrical pulses applied to the bone, as opposed to direct current potential, to make the bone grow faster and stronger (Levy, 1977). The device is invasive, and is made of materials that will not poison or react with the surrounding tissue or bone (Levy, 1977). On November 15, 1983, Hirshorn et al had their patent approved on their implantable bone growth stimulator that uses a direct current output, and constantly transmits pulsed electromagnetic energy to the injury site. The output of energy(rate) is directly proportional to the set current. To make sure that the device is not affected by the pulsing of the transmission, a coil was placed inside the device to deliver a constant current. The device is enclosed in a titanium case, and has a longer shelf life due to an electrical switch that was placed inside the device (Hirshorn, Swift, Evans, 1983). On My 19, 1987, Dr. Campbells patent was approved. His stimulator was circuit adapted, and relied on the tissue (bone) to act as the load to make the circuit work. The storage device controlled the oscillator circuit, which in turn controlled the charge of the current that was issued from the battery and applied directly to the bone at the fracture site (Campbell, 1987). On May 9, 1995, Kronbergs stimulator was approved. This device was a non-invasive device that used low alternating currents applied to the patients skin. This particular device is battery powered and was found to generate the electrical characteristics found in bones naturally that generate normal bone growth (Kronberg, 1995). On June 16, 1998, Dr. Ericksons electric bone stimulator was approved. His stimulator came with a hand-held device which transmitted, and received, signals to the implanted stimulator (Erickson, Tepper, Thacker, Varrichio, Pilla, 1995). On August 2, 2007, Dr. Nyezs invasive stimulator was approved. The device is controlled by an external remote that sends a wireless signal to the stimulator. The current is circuitry controlled. It was made to be coupled with a hip prosthesis to help with healing and proper function, but can be used to stimulate healthy bone growth in areas of injury (Nyez, 2007). Device Theory In 1953, surgeon Iwao Yasuda first demonstrated that callus could be created by applying electric fields to bone (Figure 8). His experiment consisted of wrapping wire around a rabbitt femur and sending a small (1 uA) current to the anode, away from the bone. After three weeks of continuous current, Yasuda observed that a callus-typically generated during fracture repair- was beginning to form in the direction of the current (Liboff, 2006). There are three types of electric bone growth stimulators. They are categorized based on invasiveness and type of current. Table 1 gives a brief description of the different devices. Note that there are only two types listed, invasive and noninvasive (Liboff, 2006). Semi-Invasive Treatment Semi-invasive systems are semi-implantable: partially internal and partially external. The device provides a constant direct current supplied by an external power supply. The electrodes, on the other hand, are percutaneous and pass through the skin (Electrical Bone Growth Stimulators). These systems, however, are not currently in production, and consequently are not refered to by other scholars and have no relevant data (Clinical Policy Bulletin: Bone Growth Stimulators, 2010). Invasive Treatment The invasive treatment option, also known as direct current (DC) stimulation, is fully implanted and utilizes constant direct current. The device requires two surgies: one to implant the device, and one to remove the device. The anode is placed in the soft tissue, and the cathodes are connected to a power supply (typically a lithium battery) [cain] and placed at the fusion site. At the fracture site, the electrodes can be arranged in two ways (Figure 9). They can be placed on each side of the fracture as to bridge the defect; or, the electrode can be placed directly in the defect (Liboff, 2006). The although the current setting depends upon the fracture, it is typically set at 20 uA for up to six months (Lyle E. Cain, 2002). Noninvasive Treatments There are both electric and electromagnetic noninvasive EBGS devices. They are completely external and do not require surgery. Electric Option The electric noninvasive EBGS device works through capacitive coupling (CC). The CC device uses a 60 kHz alternating sinusoidal signal to produce a current. Two electrodes are placed on the skin, one on each side of the fracture (Figure 10) (Gan, Fredericks, Glazer, 2004). The power supply (typically a 9-V battery) is worn on the hip, and operated twenty four hours a day. Treatment generally applies 5-10 mA at the skin, and 15-20 uA at the fracture site. Device maintainence relies on the patient and includes changing the battery daily. Electromagnetic Options Pulsed Magnetic Field The pulsed magnetic field device (PMF or PEMF) follows Faradays law that Any change in the magnetic environment of a coil of wire will cause a voltage (emf) to be induced in the coil (Faradays Law). It applies a sawtooth (nonsinusoidal) voltage to two parallel external coils, one above the fusion site, and one below (see figure #). The applied voltage creates a current through the coils that generates a single, magnetic field through the defect. Because the field is constantly changing, an induced voltage is created, which appears as pulses (Liboff, 2006). The coils can be worn on the skin, or over a cast (if applicable) (Lyle E. Cain, 2002). The device includes an external battery pack and may be operated up to ten hours a day (Lyle E. Cain, 2002), but treatment is typically only three hours daily (Liboff, 2006). Ion Cyclotron Resonance The ion cyclotron resonance (ICR) device is similar to the PFM device in that it also uses an external coil system. ICR devices, however, apply a different theory than PMF devices. It was shown in 1985 that the results embodied in the so-called calcium efflux effect were in close agreement with the predictions based on the resonance characteristics of certain biological ions subject to the Lorentz force (Liboff, 2006). The device combines both dc and ac magnetic fields to achieve resonant condition. The theory is that ions in resonance are more likely to stimulate the gating mechanism for ion channel transport, and tuning to these ions can increase growth (Liboff, 2006). The device (Figure 11) also uses an external battery pack, and the unit should only be operated thirty minutes per day (Lyle E. Cain, 2002). Regulatory Standards The FDA recognizes the noninvasive bone growth stimulator and the invasive bone growth stimulator under the Title 21-Food and Drugs, of the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) (Product Classification, 2010). Both are Class III devices, so they must abide by general controls and receive premarket approval. Class III devices support or sustain human life, that are of substantial importance in preventing impairment of human health, or that present a potential, unreasonable risk of illness or injury. Premarket approval (PMA) is the FDA process of scientific and regulatory review to evaluate the safety and effectiveness of Class III medical devices. A PMA application must be submitted and reviewed before marketing the products because they are considered high-risk medical devices (Device Classification, 2010). Device Review Advantages Previous treatments for nonunions included rigid fixation, bone grafts, and amputation. The electric bone growth stimulator has several advantages over these more tradition treatments. The treatment is less severe than bone grafting and the hospital stay after the invasive treatment is typically only three to four days, as opposed to ten days of recovery after grafts. Also, the average completion time for a successful union is only four months, compared to six to eight for bone grafts (Anbuselvan, Krishnamurthy, Madhumathi, Manonmani, Aravindan, Babu, 1995). Moreover, the EBGS is less traumatic than amputation and allows for the retention of limbs. In regards to the devices, the invasive option is advantageous because it provides constant uniform current and does not require an active patient role. After surgery, the device is self operated and maintained. Also, the invasive option bypasses tissue resulting in less resistance and better treatment results. The CC device is small, light, and easy to use (Lyle E. Cain, 2002). Disadvantages The main disadvantage of the EBGS is that union may be unsuccessful if the fracture gap is too large, typically over one centimeter. Also, before an EBGS is used, it must be determined that the bone is not healing properly on its own. Lastly, these devices have not yet been proven successful for treatment of nonunions in locations other than long bones or spine (Clinical Policy Bulletin: Bone Growth Stimulators, 2010). In regards to the devices, the invasive option has a higher hospital cost and patient morbidity due to the surgeries necessary for device implantation and removal. The CC device requires patient compliance. The patient must monitor, operate, and maintain the device, which includes changing the battery daily. Also, there may be skin irritation from the electrodes. Also, the PEMF and ICR devices are often larger and heavy than other external devices, which may create difficulties for patients (Clinical Policy Bulletin: Bone Growth Stimulators, 2010). Product Comparison Biomet is the only company that produces invasive electric bone growth stimulators. Their products include the OsteoGen Bone Growth Stimulator, the OsteoGen Dual Lead Bone Growth Stimulator for use with bone graft surgery, and the OsteoGen-M Bone Growth Stimulator, which utilizes a mesh cathode. Biomet also produces the following external, noninvasive EBGS devices: EBI Bone Healing System and the OrthoPak 2 Bone Growth Stimulator. The EBI Bone Healing System is more convenient because the actual device is worn like a sports band or brace that wraps around the limb, where as the OrthoPak 2 is a larger device with dermal electrodes that must be carried along with the battery pack. On the plus side, the OrthoPak 2 allows for easier placement of hard-to-reach fracture sites (Biomet, 2010). DJO sells the CMF OL1000 Bone Growth Stimulator. It follows a similar concept as the EBI Bone Healing System, except this device is not fully closed, giving it the ability of being worn over a cast if necessary (Products, 2009). Literature Review We assigned the designated sections of the report to each team member to research individually. We attended a research session with librarian Christine Drew to better understand WPIs academic databases and resources. Key terms used in our research included the following: electric bone growth stimulator, bone growth stimulator, bone growth devices, fracture healing, delayed union fracture, non union fracture, Faradays Law, Wolffs Law, piezoelectricity, bone repair, bone cells, electric bone growth device regulations, cost of bone growth stimulation, FDA class III devices, premarket approval, bone growth device history, Luigi Galvani, electric bone growth studies, companies that sell electric bone growth stimulators, Biomet, Exogen, modern electric growth theory, and bone growth stimulator patent. We searched several databases and reliable search engines including the following: Google Books, Google Scholar, Gale PowerSearch, EBSCOhost, ScienceDirect, PubMed, and Wiley Interscience.